Tuesday, January 28, 2020

Phylogenetic Analyses of S. Kinabaluensis

Phylogenetic Analyses of S. Kinabaluensis Based on the results obtain from both phylogenetic analyses, the putative parents of S. kinabaluensis are related to two different lineages. In one case, clones #1, #7, #8, #9, and #10 appear to be related to a lineage that includes S. crenata and S. nitidus (Clade 1). In the other case, clones #4 and #6 are closely related to S. alabensis (Clade2) (Figure 12, Figure 13). From both the MP and ML, it shows that S. kinabaluensis is most closely related to S. alabensis where they are aligned together in both tree. Even though the consensus tree has an inclusive low level of resolution and bootstrap support (listed above branches) (Figure 12, Figure 13), the results are in agreement with previous analyses based on ETS and ITS sequence distinction (Shafreena, 2012) suggested that the S. alabensis as one of the potential parents since the polymorphic sites observed are additive between S. alabensis and the potential parents (Shafreena, 2012). However, there is not enough support for this relationship. More data are needed to positively confirm the result. From the phylogenetic analyses, both trees of MP and ML yielded similar results (56% MP, 60% ML). The results of lineage that related to the S. crenata and S. nitidus (Clade 1) are considered as not supported and unresolved due to the low bootstrap value. Therefore, the morphological differences between these two species with S. kinabaluensis were not further evaluated in this study. As for the other lineage, it shows that S. alabensis could be one of the potential parents of S. kinabaluensis although with low bootstrap support value (Clade 2). Therefore, the vegetative and reproductive parts of these two species were observed closely and compared to find out if there is any similarity to support the result of the phylogenetic analysis. As already noted, the distinguishing feature of S. kinabaluensis is that this plant is covered with white stellate hairs on the vegetative and reproductive parts. Based on morphological observation, vegetative parts of S. alabensis are glabrous. However, the reproductive parts especially the inflorescence, branches, peduncles and pedicels do have sparse hairs. Further morphological analysis based on the reproductive parts of both species could not be further observed due to the flowering and fruiting stage while conducting this study. The specimens examined for S. kinabaluensis only had fruits, and as for S. alabensis, the specimens examined were just past flowering and there is no fruit seen. However, the leaf margin which is toothed (only towards the apex) is shared between these two species. Based on the morphological observation and study by Shafreena (2012), the corymb-like inflorescence is also shared by these two species. Therefore, these morphological similarities somehow do support the phylogenetic analyses. A study by Mallet (2007) has mention that in a hybrid speciation, it means that hybridization has had a principal role in the origin of a new species. The derived species initially have exactly one genome from each parent, a 50% contribution from each, although, in older polyploids, recombination and gene conversion may ultimately lead to unequal contributions (Mallet, 2007). However, Arnold (1997) confines the opposite view as, in his opinion, hybrids are often more fit due, not only to the intermix of genotypes from the parents, but also due to the fact that hybridization often creates novel genotypes that may be more fit under certain environmental conditions, particularly disturbed or novel environmental conditions. In this study, the potential parents of S. kinabaluensis still in a question. Therefore, the features and characteristics of S. kinabaluensis could not be fully determined and examined thoroughly. The features and characteristics of S. kinabaluensis might be inherited by the other parents or maybe it is because of the evolution undergoes by the plant itself for its own adaptation to the surrounding. Other than that, the type and phase of elevation of S. kinabaluensis and S. alabensis are more or less to each other which are 1986-2254 m and 1500-1800 m above sea level, respectively. There is not much difference in distance of elevation between this two species and therefore, increase the probability of S. alabensis as one of the putative parents of S. kinabaluensis. However, it seems that the phase of elevation of S. kinabaluensis is higher compared to S. alabensis. Based on this elevation data, it can be correlates with the facts of hybrid speciation. A study by Chase et al. (2010) has stated that once a hybrid species is developed, they faced ecological challenges. When they do become established, there are several potential reasons why they succeed: a) they exhibit transgressive traits (novel mixtures of those exhibited by their parents) that assist their existence in habitats in which neither of their parents can grow, conferring the isolation needed to avoid their reabsorption into the gene pool of one of their parents; or b) their intermediacy in some morphological traits or ecological preferences allows them to utilize a novel niche, again delivering a degree of genetic isolation from both of their parents (Chase et al., 2010). Often such hybrids can only exploit the ecological transition zone between those of their parents, which places them near one or both parents and which may be so inadequate in area that they cannot form viable populations and this intermediates are unlikely to form viable species in their own right (Chase et al., 2010). In this case, the S. kinabaluensis populations grows on a higher elevation compared to S. alabensis, showing that this hybrid species forming a populations near to their parents but with slightly different ecological changes based on the lower temperature at higher elevation. Several lines of molecular evidence support that S. kinabaluensis is of hybrid origin. First, 14 and 16 polymorphic sites for each of two accessions were discovered in the ETS and ITS region (Shafreena, 2012). Based on observation of polymorphic sites of Schefflera species showed that there are 14 species that have between 1-3 polymorphic sites except for S. avenis that has 5 polymorphic sites (Shafreena, 2012). Thus, the presence of 14-16 polymorphic sites of S. kinabaluensis showed an unusual condition (Shafreena, 2012). Second, phylogenetic analyses showed that within-individual cloned ITS repeats were not monophyletic; instead they arose from two distinct lineages (Small Wendel, 2000). From this study, S. kinabaluensis cloned ITS sequences are related to two different lineages. The clones #1, #7, #8, #9 and #10 appear to be related to a lineage that includes S. crenata and S. nitidus. Other clones #4 and #6 are closely related to S. alabensis. Third, although shared nuclear ancestry could simply point out sister relationships with S. alabensis, S. kinabaluensis also allocates nuclear ancestry with a different lineage of species including S. crenata and S. nitidus. To conclude, this molecular phylogenetic information verifies the hypothesis of a hybrid origin for S. kinabaluensis. Quite a lot of additional studies of natural hybridization are needed before the nature of the claimed hybrid origin can be comprehended (Barkman Simpson, 2002). First, it would be of relevance to know if S. kinabaluensis is an allopolyploid or diploid hybrid. Second, artificial crosses should be executed to resolve if there are any obstructions to hybridization between the potential parental species (Barkman Simpson, 2002). For future studies, the limitations in this study should be overcome such as the limitations on the amount of clones produce form the species in order to get a more precise analysis. In addition, a complete morphological description which includes the vegetative and reproductive parts of both the target hybrid species and the putative parents should be done to support the phylogenetic analysis.

Sunday, January 19, 2020

Essay --

Throughout the course of science, animal cloning has been occurring for many years. Due to the newly developed technology, it has opened up the idea of cloning human. Cloning is â€Å"A DNA sequence, such as a gene, that is transferred from one organism to another and replicated by genetic engineering techniques.† This method happens asexually and can only be found in certain bacteria and plants. For human cloning to occur it will have to be done outside of the physical human body, where an egg is taken and DNA is inserted and then it is put back into the womb for development. There may be many benefits to human cloning, but there are many ethical concerns that many arise in idea of human cloning. In Leon R. Kass article Cloning of Human Beings, Kass â€Å"urges the commission to declare human cloning deeply unethical and to recommend a legal ban.† (Kass 577) In order to fully understand the ethical concerns that may arise in the idea of human cloning and genetic engineering, lets define the two. Kass defines cloning as a form of asexual reproduction in which an individual or individuals are created up to be genetically identical to and already living organism, by the form of a test tube in a lab. The notion of human cloning involved the extraction of an unfertilized egg from a woman, and the removal of the nucleus which homes all the genetic information, and replacing it with the nucleus from the specialized cell of another organism. According to the Webster’s dictionary, genetic engineering is the â€Å"scientific alteration of the structure of genetic material in a living organism. It involves the production and use of recombinant DNA and has been employed t o create bacteria that synthesize insulin and other human proteins.† Kass states ... ... In my opinion, I think that being born a clone is one thing, but the fact of living up to the expectations of the person your parents never got to be is merely wrong and unethical. The issue brought up many time is the fact that human cloning has not been proven to result in a healthy cloned baby with no defect, so my question is if the baby is born with defects what are they to do sue their â€Å"parents†? In addition, if the cloned baby is born with many defects, what are the parents to do? Throw that baby away and keep trying the process of cloning until they have the perfect baby, now this will raise other ethical concerns. Living the life as a genetic creation, created I a laboratory with a group of scientist is just an awkward thought. These are only some the mental issues about cloning that should be considered when the thought of human cloning is at hand.

Saturday, January 11, 2020

Illiteracy Rate in America

Although the United States is the most powerful country in the world, with its high economy rate and â€Å"dot comers† at its highest peak ever, it is unfortunately, sad to say that the elevating illiteracy rate is also at its highest peak also. Even though the U. S. has the lowest rate among the other world countries, illiteracy still is a problem today that many U. S. citizens struggle with. A generalization of illiteracy is not being able to functionally read or write and â€Å"is essentially associated with poverty†(National Institute of Literacy p94) Whereas the definition of illiteracy stated by Webster (p413) is being unable to read and write; uneducated; having or showing a lack of knowledge of fundamentals on a particular subject. No one is capable of looking at another person and realizing that they are functionally illiterate, because illiterate people make it difficult to detect because they are so good at covering it. The literate public does not realize the size of the literacy problem today. They think everyone is literate, but more than 40 million Americans 16 years of age and older have only basic reading and writing skills, according to the U. S. department of education. WWW. galegroup. com Customarily, citizens apt to looking down upon those who are not functionally literate and who were deprived of the education that those who aren†t illiterate were taught These people are illiterate because they never had the opportunity to learn, or when they had the opportunity, they lacked the motivation to learn. There are many problems that an illiterate person will face when trying to live a normal day-to-day life, because they had a lack of motivation, which makes it very hard for an illiterate person to get around or even survive. Because of this, many help tactics have been underway so that they may have assistance in getting important things done. Despite the dispossession of not being able to functionally read and write, there are various problems that an individual, and that individuals† family are faced with. Such types of problems are not being able to make out a grocery, fill out important documents, such as health care information to better facilitate them and their family, and not being able to apply for a well-positioned job because they are unable to comprehend what the application is asking. These problems are like a domino effect amongst illiterate persons. Once one problem is dealt with another one appears to happen very shortly afterward. Take for example an illiterate mother who has two young children who have not been educated how to read nor write yet. This mother has a low-income job, because of lack of reading proficiency skills, which makes her have a very tight budget for her single family home. On a regular trip to the grocery store this mother would first have to ration her money out so that she would still have money for miscellaneous things. She would only be able to rely on pictures and normally bought things. While at the checkout line this mother would not be able to count her money alone, because she is â€Å"functionally illiterate†, so she would definitely be in need of assistance. Major companies and businesses have realized the illiteracy rate increase and have taken action to try and remedy the problem. There are many ways in which these places have tried to assist in helping these illiterate persons. When illiterate persons enter a social work office, in need of some sort of care â€Å"they mainly recognize there names and that†s about it† says Peggy McEldon, of Dinnwiddie Department of Social Services. She also goes on to say that â€Å"often times people come in with their forms already filled out and completed all they have to do is put the information in the system. sometimes for some support they will bring a relative or an authorized person to speak or sign papers for them, if someone can†t read or write they can sign with an â€Å"X†. (Peggy McEldon) Most importantly whatever help that is needed they are entitled to do whatever is possible to reach their need. In another situation at the local Department of Motor Vehicles, such assistance to an illiterate person trying for a drivers† license is instead of a computer test given, an oral test would be given, to ask questions as to where they stand. most people who come in with needs of assistance is young people†(Linda Hall, Front Hall Desk). In the most multicultural nation in the world, it is not uncommon to come across illiterate persons in your day-to-day life. In the 3rd world countries the crisis of illiteracy has usually been demoted. More and more however, literacy is threatening the continual development of highly industrialized nations. Though there are many sources that illiterate persons can go to to get help and assistance, illiterate persons will still not be able to survive very long with knowing little knowledge. Although it seems as though their will never be a halt in the growth of illiteracy, we find that most people will hold educators accountable for the lack of literate people that walk the face of this earth, even though it†s the illiterate people who lack in the skills needed to perform his or her purpose. Consequently as the standards increase, population grows, and the educational system falters, illiteracy will continue to be one of America†s worst problems; and the number of illiterate people will continue to rise.

Friday, January 3, 2020

Motivation in Physical Education - 1719 Words

Motivation in Physical Education Problem Statement The health benefits of physical activity are well documented to date. Researchers also are fairly confident as to how often, how much, how long, and what types of activity one must engage in for health enhancing results. Therefore, the reasons to become or to stay physically active are inescapable, and the opportunities to practice health enhancing behaviors are innumerable. The United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) recommends that adolescents do 60 minutes or more of physical activity daily. However, recognizing the importance of physical activity, Healthy People 2010 recently reported that only 65% of adolescents in grades 9-12 engage in the recommended†¦show more content†¦To date, much research has been done to address how students are motivated at various academic levels, but no programs or teaching methods have been developed to counter the problem of the discouraged PE student. Future work needs to identify not only the cau sal predictors of such changes, but also their motivational ramifications for young people in PE (Warburton Spray, 2008). What one learns in the physical education environment has been identified more now than ever, as one of the most powerful frameworks for developing physical activity habits. Despite holding such promise, interest and participation in PE as well as physical activity levels have declined with age (Biddle, 1995, cited in Koka Haggar, 2010). The physical education environment is very unique from other academic environments. In addition to a focus on cognitive competence, physical competence is of great concern for the teacher and student. Abilities of each student are obvious, and constantly in full view of peers to be evaluated by ones’ self as well as others, which may lead to an element of stress unmatched anywhere else in the school setting. It is easy for the young child to be overly-concerned with any type of self-referenced failure, which could l ead to an attempt by the student to avoid such occurrences by avoiding the activity altogether. MuchShow MoreRelatedMy Motivation For Choosing A Physical Education1827 Words   |  8 Pagesindustry. (b) My motivation for opting to study E112, is to further develop my skills and knowledge in sport and fitness. I also aim to progress into becoming a physical education teacher. Throughout this module I would like to be re-introduced into education in sport and fitness as it has been four years since I studied a level 3 sport science course, and I would like this module to help me prepare and study effectively. As stated above, my ambition is to become a physical education teacher in a highRead MoreHow Does Motivation And Physical Activity Differ By Grade And Gender?841 Words   |  4 Pagescounts? How does motivation and physical activity differ by grade and gender? 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